Etymology and meaning
Further information: S-L-M
Islam is a verbal noun originating from the triliteral root s-l-m which forms a large class of words mostly relating to concepts of wholeness, completion and bonding/joining.[17] In a religious context it means "voluntary submission to God".[18][19] Muslim, the word for an adherent of Islam, is the active participle of the same verb of which Islām is the infinitive. Believers demonstrate submission to God by serving God and following his commands, and rejecting polytheism. The word sometimes has distinct connotations in its various occurrences in the Qur'an. In some verses (ayat),
there is stress on the quality of Islam as an internal conviction:
"Whomsoever God desires to guide, He expands his breast to Islam."[20] Other verses connect islām and dīn (usually translated as "religion"): "Today, I have perfected your religion (dīn) for you; I have completed My blessing upon you; I have approved Islam for your religion."[21] Still others describe Islam as an action of returning to God—more than just a verbal affirmation of faith.[22] Another technical meaning in Islamic thought is as one part of a triad of islam, imān (faith), and ihsān (excellence) where it represents acts of service (`ibādah) and Islamic law (sharia).[23]
Articles of faith
The core beliefs of Islam are that there is only one god – unitary
and beyond comprehension – and that Muhammad is the prophet of God, the
last in a series of prophets beginning with Adam.
The Qur'an is upheld as the eternal, literal word of God, and
revelations to earlier prophets, as seen in the Jewish Torah and
Christian Gospels, are believed to have become distorted by human
intervention. Muslims believe that the Qur’an was revealed to Muhammad
through the angel Gabriel, and belief in angels as God’s servants is part of the Islamic tradition. Belief in the Day of Judgment, when all people will undergo bodily resurrection
and be judged by God, is another core tenet. While Sunni and Shi’a
Muslims adhere to these basic beliefs, Shi’a also believe in the Imamate, the line of infallible spiritual and political leaders who succeeded Muhammad, beginning with his cousin and son-in-law, Ali.[24]
God
Main article: God in Islam
Islam's most fundamental concept is a rigorous monotheism, called tawhīd (Arabic: توحيد). God is described in chapter 112 of the Qur'an as:[25]
"Say: He is God, the One and Only; God, the Eternal, Absolute; He
begetteth not, nor is He begotten; And there is none like unto Him." (112:1-4) Muslims repudiate the Christian doctrine of the Trinity and divinity of Jesus, comparing it to polytheism,
but accept Jesus as a prophet. In Islam, God is beyond all
comprehension and Muslims are not expected to visualize God. God is
described and referred to by certain names or attributes, the most
common being Al-Rahmān, meaning "The Compassionate" and Al-Rahīm, meaning "The Merciful" (See Names of God in Islam).[26]
Muslims believe that creation of everything in the universe is brought into being by God’s sheer command “‘Be’ and so it is.”[27][28] and that the purpose of existence is to love and serve God.[2][29] He is viewed as a personal god who responds whenever a person in need or distress calls him.[27][30] There are no intermediaries, such as clergy, to contact God who states "We are nearer to him than (his) jugular vein"[31]
Allāh is the term with no plural or gender used by Muslims and Arabic-speaking Christians and Jews to reference God, while ʾilāh (Arabic: إله) is the term used for a deity or a god in general.[32] Other non-Arab Muslims might use different names as much as Allah, for instance "Tanrı" in Turkish or "Khodā" in Persian.
Angels
Main article: Islamic view of angels
Belief in angels is fundamental to the faith of Islam. The Arabic word for angel (Arabic: ملاك malak) means "messenger", like its counterparts in Hebrew (malakh) and Greek (angelos). According to the Qur'an, angels do not possess free will, and worship God in total obedience.[33] Angels' duties include communicating revelations from God, glorifying God, recording every person's actions, and taking a person's soul at the time of death. They are also thought to intercede
on man's behalf. The Qur'an describes angels as "messengers with
wings—two, or three, or four (pairs): He [God] adds to Creation as He
pleases..."[34]
Revelations
Main articles: Islamic holy books and Qur'an
See also: History of the Qur'an
The Islamic holy books are the records which most Muslims believe
were dictated by God to various prophets. Muslims believe that parts of
the previously revealed scriptures, the Tawrat (Torah) and the Injil (Gospels), had become distorted—either in interpretation, in text, or both.[4] The Qur'an
(literally, “Reading” or “Recitation”) is viewed by Muslims as the
final revelation and literal word of God and is widely regarded as the
finest piece of literature work in the Arabic language.[35][36][37]
Muslims believe that the verses of the Qur'an were revealed to Muhammad by God through the archangel Gabriel (Jibrīl) on many occasions between 610 CE until his death on June 8, 632 CE.[38] While Muhammad was alive, all of these revelations were written down by his companions (sahabah), although the prime method of transmission was orally through memorization.[39] After the death of Muhammad, it was compiled in the time of Abu Bakr, the first caliph, and was standardized under the administration of Uthman, the third caliph.
The Qur'an is divided into 114 suras, or chapters, which combined, contain 6,236 āyāt, or verses. The chronologically earlier suras, revealed at Mecca, are primarily concerned with ethical and spiritual topics. The later Medinan suras mostly discuss social and moral issues relevant to the Muslim community.[40]
The Qur'an is more concerned with moral guidance than legal
instruction, and is considered the "sourcebook of Islamic principles and
values".[41] Muslim jurists consult the hadith,
or the written record of Prophet Muhammad's life, to both supplement
the Qur'an and assist with its interpretation. The science of Qur'anic
commentary and exegesis is known as tafsir.[42]
When Muslims speak in the abstract about "the Qur'an", they usually
mean the scripture as recited in Arabic rather than the printed work or
any translation of it. To Muslims, the Qur'an is perfect only as
revealed in the original Arabic; translations are necessarily deficient
because of language differences, the fallibility of translators, and the
impossibility of preserving the original's inspired style. Translations
are therefore regarded only as commentaries on the Qur'an, or
"interpretations of its meaning", not as the Qur'an itself.[43]
Prophets
| Hadith collections | ||||
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Main article: Prophets of Islam
Muslims identify the prophets of Islam (Arabic: نبي nabī ) as those humans chosen by God to be his messengers. According to the Qur'an[44] the descendants of Abraham and Imran
were chosen by God to bring the "Will of God" to the peoples of the
nations. Muslims believe that prophets are human and not divine, though
some are able to perform miracles to prove their claim. Islamic theology
says that all of God's messengers preached the message of
Islam—submission to the will of God. The Qur'an mentions the names of
numerous figures considered prophets in Islam, including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses and Jesus, among others.[45] Muslims believe that God finally sent Muhammad (Seal of the Prophets)
to convey the divine message to the whole world (to sum up and to
finalize the word of God). In Islam, the "normative" example of
Muhammad's life is called the Sunnah (literally "trodden path"). This example is preserved in traditions known as hadith ("reports"), which recount his words, his actions, and his personal characteristics. Hadith Qudsi is a sub-category of hadith, regarded as the words of God repeated by Muhammad differing from the Quran in that they are "expressed in Muhammad's words", whereas the quran are the "direct words of God". The classical Muslim jurist ash-Shafi'i
(d. 820) emphasized the importance of the Sunnah in Islamic law, and
Muslims are encouraged to emulate Muhammad's actions in their daily
lives. The Sunnah is seen as crucial to guiding interpretation of the
Qur'an. Six of these collections, compiled in the 3rd century AH (9th century CE),
came to be regarded as especially authoritative by the largest group in
Islām, the Sunnites. Another large group, the Shīʾah, has its own
Ḥadīth contained in four canonical collections.[27]
Resurrection and judgment
Main article: Qiyama
Belief in the "Day of Resurrection", Yawm al-Qiyāmah (Arabic: يوم القيامة) is also crucial for Muslims. They believe the time of Qiyāmah is preordained by God but unknown to man. The trials and tribulations preceding and during the Qiyāmah are described in the Qur'an and the hadith, and also in the commentaries of scholars. The Qur'an emphasizes bodily resurrection, a break from the pre-Islamic Arabian understanding of death.[46]
On Yawm al-Qiyāmah, Muslims believe all mankind will be judged on their good and bad deeds. The Qur'an lists several sins that can condemn a person to hell, such as disbelief (Arabic: كفر Kufr), and dishonesty; however, the Qur'an makes it clear God will forgive the sins of those who repent if he so wills.[47] Good deeds, such as charity and prayer, will be rewarded with entry to heaven. Muslims view heaven
as a place of joy and bliss, with Qur'anic references describing its
features and the physical pleasures to come. Mystical traditions in
Islam place these heavenly delights in the context of an ecstatic
awareness of God.[48]
Yawm al-Qiyāmah is also identified in the Qur'an as Yawm ad-Dīn (Arabic: يوم الدين), "Day of Religion";[49] as-sāʿah (Arabic: الساعة), "the Last Hour";[50] and al-Qāriʿah (Arabic: القارعة), "The Clatterer."[51]
Predestination
Main article: Predestination in Islam
In accordance with the Islamic belief in predestination, or divine preordainment (al-qadā wa'l-qadar),
God has full knowledge and control over all that occurs. This is
explained in Qur'anic verses such as "Say: 'Nothing will happen to us
except what Allah has decreed for us: He is our protector'..."[52]
For Muslims, everything in the world that occurs, good or evil, has
been preordained and nothing can happen unless permitted by God.
According to Muslim theologians, although events are pre-ordained, man
possesses free will in that he has the faculty to choose between right
and wrong, and is thus responsible for his actions. According to Islamic
tradition, all that has been decreed by God is written in al-Lawh al-Mahfūz, the "Preserved Tablet".[53]
Five pillars
Main article: Five Pillars of Islam
The Pillars of Islam (arkan al-Islam; also arkan ad-din, "pillars of religion") are five basic acts in Islam, considered obligatory for all believers. The Quran presents them as a framework for worship and a sign of commitment to the faith. They are (1) the shahadah (creed), (2) daily prayers (salat), (3) almsgiving (zakah), (4) fasting during Ramadan and (5) the pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj) at least once in a lifetime. The Shia and Sunni sects both agree on the essential details for the performance of these acts.[54]
Testimony
Main article: Shahadah
The Shahadah,[55] which is the basic creed of Islam that must be recited under oath with the specific statement: "'ašhadu 'al-lā ilāha illā-llāhu wa 'ašhadu 'anna muħammadan rasūlu-llāh",
or "I testify there are no deities other than God alone and I testify
that Muhammad is the Messenger of God." This testament is a foundation
for all other beliefs and practices in Islam. Muslims must repeat the shahadah in prayer, and non-Muslims wishing to convert to Islam are required to recite the creed.[56]
Prayer
Main article: Salah
See also: Mosque
Ritual prayers, called Ṣalāh or Ṣalāt (Arabic: صلاة), must be performed five times a day. Salah is intended to focus the mind on God, and is seen as a personal communication with him that expresses gratitude and worship. Salah is compulsory but flexibility in the specifics is allowed depending on circumstances. The prayers are recited in the Arabic language, and consist of verses from the Qur'an.[57]
A mosque is a place of worship for Muslims, who often refer to it by its Arabic name, masjid. The word mosque
in English refers to all types of buildings dedicated to Islamic
worship, although there is a distinction in Arabic between the smaller,
privately owned mosque and the larger, "collective" mosque (masjid jāmi`).[58] Although the primary purpose of the mosque is to serve as a place of prayer, it is also important to the Muslim community
as a place to meet and study. Modern mosques have evolved greatly from
the early designs of the 7th century, and contain a variety of
architectural elements such as minarets.[59] Shia Islam permits combining prayers in succession.[60]
Alms-giving
"Zakāt" (Arabic: زكاة zakāh "alms")
is giving a fixed portion of accumulated wealth by those who can afford
it to help the poor or needy, and also to assist the spread of Islam.
It is considered a religious obligation (as opposed to voluntary
charity) that the well-off owe to the needy because their wealth is seen
as a "trust from God's bounty". The Qur'an and the hadith also suggest a
Muslim give even more as an act of voluntary alms-giving (ṣadaqah).[61]
Fasting
Main article: Sawm
Further information: Sawm of Ramadan
Fasting, (Arabic: صوم ṣawm),
from food and drink (among other things) must be performed from dawn to
dusk during the month of Ramadhan. The fast is to encourage a feeling
of nearness to God, and during it Muslims should express their gratitude
for and dependence on him, atone for their past sins, and think of the
needy. Sawm is not obligatory for several groups for whom it
would constitute an undue burden. For others, flexibility is allowed
depending on circumstances, but missed fasts usually must be made up
quickly.[62]
Pilgrimage
Main article: Hajj
The pilgrimage, called the ḥajj (Arabic: حج ḥaǧǧ) during the Islamic month of Dhu al-Hijjah in the city of Mecca. Every able-bodied
Muslim who can afford it must make the pilgrimage to Mecca at least
once in his or her lifetime. Rituals of the Hajj include walking seven
times around the Kaaba, touching the black stone if possible, walking or running seven times between Mount Safa and Mount Marwah, and symbolically stoning the Devil in Mina.[63]
Law and jurisprudence
| Part of a series on |
| Islamic jurisprudence (Fiqh) |
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| Islamic studies |
The Sharia (literally "the path leading to the watering
place") is Islamic law formed by traditional Islamic scholarship, which
most Muslim groups adhere to. In Islam, Sharia is the expression of the
divine will, and "constitutes a system of duties that are incumbent upon
a Muslim by virtue of his religious belief".[64]
Islamic law covers all aspects of life, from matters of state, like governance and foreign relations, to issues of daily living. The Qur'an defines hudud
as the punishments for five specific crimes: unlawful intercourse,
false accusation of unlawful intercourse, consumption of alcohol, theft,
and highway robbery. Though not in the Qur'an[where?], there are also laws against apostasy (although Muslims disagree over punishment).[65] The Qur'an and Sunnah also contain laws of inheritance, marriage, and restitution for injuries and murder, as well as rules for fasting, charity, and prayer. However, these prescriptions and prohibitions may be broad, so their application in practice varies. Islamic scholars (known as ulema) have elaborated systems of law on the basis of these rules and their interpretations.[66] Over the years there have been changing views on Islamic law but many such as Zahiri and Jariri[clarification needed] have since died out.[67][68]
Fiqh,
or "jurisprudence", is defined as the knowledge of the practical rules
of the religion. Much of it has evolved to prevent innovation or
alteration in the original religion, known as bid'ah. The method Islamic jurists use to derive rulings is known as usul al-fiqh
("legal theory", or "principles of jurisprudence"). According to
Islamic legal theory, law has four fundamental roots, which are given
precedence in this order: the Qur'an, the Sunnah (the practice of
Muhammad), the consensus of the Muslim jurists (ijma), and analogical reasoning (qiyas). For early Islamic jurists, theory was less important than pragmatic application of the law. In the 9th century, the jurist ash-Shafi'i
provided a theoretical basis for Islamic law by codifying the
principles of jurisprudence (including the four fundamental roots) in
his book ar-Risālah.[69]
Jurists
There are many terms in Islam to refer to religiously sanctioned
positions of Islam, but "jurist" generally refers to the educated class
of Muslim legal scholars engaged in the several fields of Islamic studies. In a broader sense, the term ulema
is used to describe the body of Muslim clergy who have completed
several years of training and study of Islamic sciences, such as a mufti, qadi, faqih, or muhaddith. Some Muslims include under this term the village mullahs, imams, and maulvis—who
have attained only the lowest rungs on the ladder of Islamic
scholarship; other Muslims would say that clerics must meet higher
standards to be considered ulama (singular Aalim). Some Muslims practise
ijtihad whereby they do not accept the authority of clergy.[70]
Etiquette and diet
Main articles: Adab (behavior) and Islamic dietary laws
Many practices fall in the category of adab, or Islamic etiquette. This includes greeting others with "as-salamu `alaykum" ("peace be unto you"), saying bismillah ("in the name of God") before meals, and using only the right hand for eating and drinking. Islamic hygienic practices mainly fall into the category of personal cleanliness and health. Circumcision of male offspring is also practiced in Islam. Islamic burial rituals include saying the Salat al-Janazah ("funeral prayer") over the bathed and enshrouded dead body, and burying it in a grave. Muslims are restricted in their diet. Prohibited foods include pork products, blood, carrion, and alcohol. All meat must come from a herbivorous
animal slaughtered in the name of God by a Muslim, Jew, or Christian,
with the exception of game that one has hunted or fished for oneself.
Food permissible for Muslims is known as halal food.[71]
Family life
See also: Women in Islam
The basic unit of Islamic society is the family,
and Islam defines the obligations and legal rights of family members.
The father is seen as financially responsible for his family, and is
obliged to cater for their well-being. The division of inheritance
is specified in the Qur'an, which states that most of it is to pass to
the immediate family, while a portion is set aside for the payment of
debts and the making of bequests. With some exceptions, the woman's
share of inheritance is generally half of that of a man with the same
rights of succession.[72] Marriage in Islam is a civil contract
which consists of an offer and acceptance between two qualified parties
in the presence of two witnesses. The groom is required to pay a bridal
gift (mahr) to the bride, as stipulated in the contract.[73]
A man may have up to four wives if he believes he can treat them
equally, while a woman may have only one husband. In most Muslim
countries, the process of divorce in Islam is known as talaq, which the husband initiates by pronouncing the word "divorce".[74] Scholars disagree whether Islamic holy texts justify traditional Islamic practices such as veiling and seclusion (purdah). Starting in the 20th century, Muslim social reformers argued against these and other practices such as polygamy in Islam,
with varying success. At the same time, many Muslim women have
attempted to reconcile tradition with modernity by combining an active
life with outward modesty. Certain Islamist groups like the Taliban have sought to continue traditional law as applied to women.[75]
Government
Mainstream Islamic law does not distinguish between "matters of church" and "matters of state"; the scholars
function as both jurists and theologians. In practice, Islamic rulers
frequently bypassed the Sharia courts with a parallel system of
so-called "Grievance courts" over which they had sole control.[citation needed] As the Muslim world came into contact with European secular ideals, Muslim societies responded in different ways. Turkey has been governed as a secular state ever since the reforms of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk in 1923. In contrast, the 1979 Iranian Revolution replaced a mostly secular regime with an Islamic republic led by the Ayatollah Khomeini.[76]
Military
Jihad means "to strive or struggle" (in the way of God) and is considered the "Sixth Pillar of Islam" by a minority of Sunni Muslim authorities.[77]
Jihad, in its broadest sense, is classically defined as "exerting one's
utmost power, efforts, endeavors, or ability in contending with an
object of disapprobation." Depending on the object being a visible enemy, the devil, and aspects of one's own self (such as sinful desires), different categories of jihad are defined.[78] Jihad, when used without any qualifier, is understood in its military aspect.[79][80] Jihad also refers to one's striving to attain religious and moral perfection.[81] Some Muslim authorities, especially among the Shi'a and Sufis, distinguish between the "greater jihad", which pertains to spiritual self-perfection, and the "lesser jihad", defined as warfare.[82]
Within Islamic jurisprudence, jihad is usually taken to mean military exertion against non-Muslim combatants in the defense or expansion of the Ummah.
The ultimate purpose of military jihad is debated, both within the
Islamic community and without, with some claiming that it only serves to
protect the Ummah, with no aspiration of offensive conflict, whereas
others have argued that the goal of Jihad is global conquest. Jihad is
the only form of warfare permissible in Islamic law and may be declared
against terrorists, criminal groups, rebels, apostates, and leaders or states who oppress Muslims or hamper proselytizing efforts.[83][84]
Most Muslims today interpret Jihad as only a defensive form of warfare:
the external Jihad includes a struggle to make the Islamic societies
conform to the Islamic norms of justice.[85]
Under most circumstances and for most Muslims, jihad is a collective duty (fard kifaya): its performance by some individuals exempts the others. Only for those vested with authority, especially the sovereign (imam), does jihad become an individual duty. For the rest of the populace, this happens only in the case of a general mobilization.[84] For most Shias, offensive jihad can only be declared by a divinely appointed leader of the Muslim community, and as such is suspended since Muhammad al-Mahdi's[86] occultation in 868 AD.[87]
